Land and Natural Resources
Much of India's area of almost 1.3 million square miles (3.3 million square kilometers—including the parts of Kashmir occupied by Pakistan or China) is a peninsula jutting into the Indian Ocean between the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. There are three distinct physiographic regions. In the north the high peaks of the Himalayas lie partly in India but mostly just beyond its borders in Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. South of the mountains, the low-lying Indo-Gangetic Plain, shared with Pakistan and Bangladesh, extends more than 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. Finally, the peninsular tableland, largely the Deccan, together with its adjacent coastal plains, makes up more than half of the nation's area.

The Himalayas
The northern mountain wall consists of three parallel ranges. The highest of these ranges is the Greater Himalayas, which include several peaks that rise above 25,000 feet (7,600 meters). Even the passes through these mountains are farther above sea level than the highest summits of the Alps. India has the world's largest area under snow and glaciers outside the polar regions.
Lower mountain ranges branch off from both ends of the Himalayan system, running along the border with Myanmar toward the Bay of Bengal in the east and—mainly through Pakistan—toward the Arabian Sea in the west. Thus, the low-lying country to the south is relatively isolated from the rest of Asia. This accounts for its recognition as a subcontinent.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain
The Indo-Gangetic Plain, with an area of about 270,000 square miles (700,000 square kilometers), varies in width by several hundred miles. It is the world's most extensive tract of uninterrupted alluvium. These deep, river-deposited sediments give rise to fertile soils. In addition, they are rich in groundwater for well irrigation. The flat terrain also makes the area ideal for canal irrigation.
The greater part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain is drained by the Ganges River, which rises in the southern Himalayas and flows in a generally south to southeast direction to the Bay of Bengal. Its principal tributary, the Yamuna, or Jumna, flows past New Delhi, the capital of India, to join the Ganges near Allahabad. North of Goalundo Ghat in Bangladesh, the Ganges is joined by the Brahmaputra). The Indus and its tributaries drain the western and southwestern parts of the plain. The northern part of this area, now divided between India and Pakistan, is traditionally known as the Punjab, or Land of the Five Rivers, for the five major tributaries of the Indus—the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas).

INDIA
About one sixth of all the human beings on Earth live in India, the world's most populous democracy. Its borders encompass a vast variety of peoples, practicing most of the world's major religions, speaking scores of different languages, and divided into thousands of socially exclusive castes. A civilized, urban society has existed in India for well over 4,000 years, and there have been periods when its culture was as brilliant and creative as any in history. The country is also known by its ancient Hindi name, Bharat.
India's leaders have played a prominent role in world affairs since the country became independent in 1947. Nevertheless, the standard of living of most of its citizens is low. The huge population strains the nation's limited resources. Fertile, cultivable land is scarce, yet about two thirds of the people depend directly on agriculture for their livelihood. Many millions of Indians are inadequately nourished, poorly housed, and lacking in basic educational, medical, and sanitary services.
Although the modern nation of India encompasses the greater part of South Asia, it is smaller than the Indian Empire formerly ruled by Britan. Burma, a mainly Buddhist country lying to the east, was administratively detached from India in 1937. Ten years later, when Britain granted independence to the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, two regions with Muslim majorities—a large one in the northwest (West Pakistan) and a smaller one in the northeast (East Pakistan)—were partitioned from the predominantly Hindu areas and became the separate nation of Pakisthan. East Pakistan broke away from Pakistan in 1971 to form the independent nation of Bangladesh. Also bordering India on its long northern frontier are the People's Republic of China and the relatively small kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. The island republic of Sri Lanka lies just off India's southern tip. India's capital is New Delhi

SOFT DRINKS
In the manufacture of soft drinks, special attention must be paid to the purity and uniformity of ingredients. These ingredients include water, carbon dioxide, sugar or sugar substitutes, acids, flavoring, and sometimes coloring.
Water is usually taken from pure municipal sources. Nevertheless, because the amount of impurities in the municipal supply may vary from time to time, it generally undergoes further processing to ensure uniformity of the finished product. In some bottling plants the water-treatment equipment may consist simply of a sand filter to remove minute solid particles and an activated-carbon purifier to remove color, chlorine, and any other tastes or odors that may be present. In most plants, however, water is treated by a process known as super chlorination and coagulation. In this process the water is exposed to a high concentration of chlorine and to a flocculants that removes tiny organisms. The water is then passed through a sand filter and activated-carbon purifier.
Natural flavors are derived from fruits, nuts, berries, roots, herbs, and other plant sources. Flavoring syrup is made from sugar that is delivered to the soft-drink manufacturer either in granulated form or as a 67-percent or 76-percent solution known as liquid sugar. Sugars commonly known as corn sugars can also be used as substitutes for cane sugar. The sugar is dissolved or diluted with processed water, then combined with flavoring substances. Edible acids, principally citric acid, are added to give the mixture tartness. Natural or artificial coloring may also be added, and sometimes preservatives are used to protect the beverage from spoilage. Large quantities of synthetic sweeteners are used in the production of low-calorie beverages.
Special Kinds of Soft Drinks
Noncarbonated soft drinks are produced with much the same ingredients and techniques as are carbonated soft drinks. However, because they are not protected from spoilage by carbonation, they are usually pasteurized. This may be done in bulk or by continuous flash pasteurization either prior to filling or in the bottle.
Powdered soft drinks are made by blending flavoring material with such ingredients as dry acids, gums, and artificial color. If the sweetener has been included, the consumer needs only to add water to make the drink.

Silver
Soft, lustrous, white silver was one of the first metals known to humans. Together with gold, iridium, palladium, and platinum, it is one of the group called precious metals. Silver ornaments and decorations have been found in royal tombs dating back as far as 4000 BC. The silver mines worked by the Carthaginians in Spain were well known; Roman envy of this wealth helped bring on the Punic Wars. Probably the most famous silver deposit in the New World was the Comstock Lode, discovered near Virginia City, Nev., in 1859. It yielded over 225 million dollars in silver during its productive years.
Silver is somewhat harder than gold and is second only to gold in malleability and ductility. It can be beaten into silver leaf 1/100,000 of an inch (0.000025 centimeter) in thickness. One ounce (28 grams) of silver can be drawn into a fine wire about 30 miles (48 kilometers) long. As a conductor of heat and electricity, silver has no equal.
Unlike gold, silver is present in many naturally occurring minerals. Some silver is obtained in native form or from such ores as argentite (silver sulfide) or cerargyrite (silver chloride). Most domestic silver, however, is recovered as a by-product of smelting lead, copper, or zinc ores and from gold deposits. Pure silver is produced from the crude silver by-product either by electrolysis or by a chemical method
Silver is processed in many forms—ingots, sheets, wire, bullion, tubing, castings, and powder. Historically, a major use of silver has been monetary, in the form of reserves of silver bullion and of coins. By the 1960s, however, the demand for silver for use in industry exceeded the total annual world production.
Because silver does not react readily with organic acids and bases, it is used for lining vats, tanks, and other containers in the chemical and food industries. Because of the metal's high electrical conductivity, it is used for making printed electrical circuits and as a coating for electronic conductors, and it is alloyed with such elements as copper and gold for use in electrical contacts. In the photography industry, silver compounded with bromine or chlorine forms light-sensitive coatings that register images on films.
Silver acetate serves as an industrial oxidizing agent and laboratory reagent. Silver nitrate is used in silver plating, hair dyeing, and manufacturing ink, glass, and mirrors, and as a strong antiseptic. Silver oxide, a dark-brown powder, is used in medicines, in coloring glass, and in purifying drinking water. Silver iodide, a pale-yellow powder, is used chiefly in medicines, in photography, and in cloud seeding to produce rain artificially during drought conditions.
The use of silver for sterling and plated silverware, ornaments, jewelry, and similar products has continued to be significant. Alloys of silver with copper are harder, tougher, and more fusible than pure silver and are used for jewelry and coinage. The proportion of silver in these alloys is stated in terms of fineness, which means parts of silver per thousand parts of the alloy. Sterling silver contains 92.5 percent of silver and 7.5 percent of another metal, usually copper—that is, it has a fineness of 925. Jewelry silver is an alloy containing 80 percent silver and 20 percent copper (800 fine). Gold dental alloys contain about 75 percent gold and 10 percent silver. The yellow gold that is used in jewelry is composed of 53 percent gold, 25 percent silver, and 22 percent copper.
Historically, silver has been a substance that could be used for money, leading to its use as the standard for the monetary systems of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Silver continued to be the standard for most currencies until the 19th century, when most countries changed to a gold standard. Expanding industrial use of silver led to the elimination of silver in United States coinage in the 1960s. The price per ounce of silver rose so high that it would have been advantageous to melt down the coins for their silver content. The United States Department of the Treasury became a major supplier of silver to industrial users. The Treasury reduced the silver content of a half-dollar and introduced silverless dimes and quarters in 1965 to help maintain the supply of circulating coins. Finally, in 1967, the Treasury withdrew all silver coins from circulation.

Magnetic Fields
A magnet can attract or repel another magnet or a piece of soft iron without touching it. Magnetic forces are exerted even when empty space, air, or any nonmagnetic material such as cardboard separates the two. Furthermore, two magnets can exert a force on each other even when they are placed at an angle to each other. Scientists describe the space around a magnet as occupied by a magnetic field. They can “map” the field by observing the direction of the magnetic force at many points around the magnet.
For example, a small compass may be placed in different positions near a long bar magnet. Since the compass is free to swing around, it will point in the direction of the magnetic field at each position. By observing the way the compass points, the direction of the magnetic field at any position can be determined.
The compass is moved in short steps, always in the direction in which it points. After each move, the position of the compass is marked. If the marks are connected by lines, they are seen to start at one pole and move around to the other pole. These lines are called lines of force, or lines of flux, of the magnetic field. By convention, the magnitude of the magnetic field is described as positive when it goes from north to south, negative when it goes from south to north. The lines of force exist inside the magnet as well: they go from one pole to the other. One may also sprinkle tiny iron filings on a piece of stiff paper covering a flat bar magnet. If the paper is gently tapped while the iron filings are sprinkled, the filings jump around and arrange themselves along the lines of the magnetic field. Where the lines are close to one another, the field is strong; where the lines are far apart, the field is weak. The lines and the filings are densest at the poles of the magnet, where the magnetic field is strongest.
The shape of a magnetic field can be changed by changing the shape of a magnet. If a long bar magnet is bent into a horseshoe shape, the magnetic poles are brought closer together. Most of the magnetic field lines lie between the two tips of the horseshoe. Since the field is strongest where the lines are densest, this shape produces a highly concentrated field between the two tips of the horseshoe. Magnets can be made in other shapes to produce other magnetic field patterns.

Forces
Scientists consider both forces and velocities as vectors. Vectors are shown by arrows: they represent quantities that have both a specific magnitude—size or strength—and direction. Velocity, for example, has both magnitude and direction. Although the words speed and velocity are used interchangeably, speed is properly only the magnitude of the velocity vector. A complete description of an object's velocity requires both a knowledge of the object's speed and the direction in which it is traveling. For example, a stone whirled in a circle at the end of a string has a changing velocity even if it moves at a fixed number of revolutions per minute. The stone's speed is constant, but its direction of travel, and therefore its velocity, changes continuously. The force on the stone that causes the change in velocity is another vector, called a centripetal force. Its magnitude is the tension in the string, and its direction is radially inward toward the center of the circle described by the spinning stone.

Two forces applied simultaneously to the same point have the same effect as a single equivalent force. The magnitude and direction of this resultant force can be found by drawing the two original force vectors head to tail and then drawing a new vector—the resultant force vector—from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second. Similarly, vectors can also be added by the use of parallelograms (see diagram).
The same forces can have different effects depending on how they are applied and on the specific body to which they are applied. For example, if applied in a certain way, a force may cause a body to spin, or rotate. The tendency of a force to rotate the body to which it is applied is called torque, or moment of the force. Torque is also a vector. The magnitude of the torque can be calculated by multiplying the perpendicular distance between the line of the force and the axis of rotation.
The force that resists the motion of a body along a path or the torque that opposes rotation is called friction. Both frictional forces and frictional torques are passive and do not exist alone. They appear only when other forces are applied or if a body is already in motion. Friction may be undesirable, as in the case of air resistance that slows down an airplane, or it may be useful, as it is in the case of car brakes, which slow down a car by means of friction

Alicia Stott
(June 8, 1860 - December 17, 1940) mathematician
Alicia Boole Stott's father was the mathematician George Boole (for whom Boolean logic is named). He was teaching in Ireland when Alicia was born there, in 1860, and he died four years later. Alicia lived with her grandmother in England and her great-uncle in Cork for the next ten years before she rejoined her mother and sisters in London.
In her teens, Alicia Stott became interested in four-dimensional hypercubes, or tesseracts. She became secretary to John Falk, an associate of her brother-in-law, Howard Hinton, who had introduced her to tesseracts. Alicia Stott continued building models of wood to represent four-dimensional convex solids, which she named polytopes, and published an article on three-dimenstional sections of hypersolids in 1900.
She married Walter Stott, an actuary. They had two children, and Alicia Stott settled into the role of homemaker until her husband noted that her mathematical interests might also be of interest to the mathematician Pieter Hendrik Schoute at the University of Groningen. After the Stotts wrote to Schoute, and Schoute saw photographs of some models that Alicia Stott had built, Schoute moved to England to work with her.
Alicia Stott worked on deriving Archimedean solids from Platonic solids. With Schoute's encouragement, she published papers on her own and that the two of them developed together.
In 1914, Schoute's colleagues at Groningen invited Alicia Stott to a celebration, planning to award to her an honorary degree. But when Schoute died before the ceremony could be held, Alicia Stott returned to the her middle class life at home.
In 1930, Alicia Stott began collaborating with H. S. M. Coxeter on the geometry of kaleidoscopes. She also constructed cardboard models of the "snub 24-cell."
She died in 1940.

PACKET FOOD
A limited selection of food that is prepared in advance and within minutes of being ordered is known as fast food, and fast-food restaurants are popular eating places in most populated places in the United States. For many decades there have been hot dog, hamburger, and other snack stands that offer almost-instant meals. Modern fast-food establishments, however, differ from both the restaurant and such snack stands in that most of them belong to chains of franchise outlets. This enables them to offer a great number, yet still limited selection, of dishes at nominal prices and still make an adequate profit.
Because they are chains, the food they sell is virtually the same at every outlet, and they generally specialize in one kind of food such as hamburgers, pizza, chicken, or tacos. This specialization and standardization is maintained by the terms of the franchise agreement, which requires every outlet to offer the same type of service and to buy its inventory from approved wholesalers. Some chains, however, have begun to diversify. McDonald's, for example, has experimented with pizza, fried chicken, and submarine sandwiches, and many restaurants now serve breakfast.
Apart from immediate service and standardized products, fast-food establishments differ from other restaurants by selling food over a counter. There may be tables, and the food may be eaten on the premises, but customers are not seated and offered a menu. There are restaurant chains—such as Shoney's, Red Lobster, and Denny's—that provide quick service and standardized menus, but they operate more like regular restaurants in that they provide table service and offer a wider range of food and beverages. Dining in these establishments is generally a more leisurely experience than that offered by fast-food outlets, and they are also more expensive.
Most fast-food meals are high in fat and sodium and low in fiber and nutrients. Although consumers may choose chicken or fish entrees as lower-fat alternatives, fried patties and nuggets may derive more than 50 percent of their calories from fat, well over the 30 percent recommended by public health organizations. Some chains provide reduced-fat hamburgers, salads, low-fat milk, and juices.
Although some fast-food operations—White Castle hamburgers, for example—have been in business for several decades, the great growth in these establishments took place only after World War II. Two of the largest companies, McDonald's and Kentucky Fried Chicken, were founded in 1955. By the early 1990s there were more than 500 food franchising companies with a combined total of more than 70,000 retail outlets in the United States. Of these outlets about 48,000 are owned by franchisees, while 22,000 are owned by the companies and leased to operators. McDonald's owns all of its outlets; some companies sell their franchises; others, such as Kentucky Fried Chicken, both sell and lease.
While McDonald's and a few other food franchising companies remain independent corporations, most companies have been bought by larger firms. Burger King, for example, is owned by a British corporation, Grand Metropolitan PLC. Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Taco Bell are all owned by Pepsico, Inc.
American-style fast-food emporiums have appeared around the globe. Of the more than 4,000 foreign outlets, most are in the United Kingdom, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. In the late 1980s American fast-food companies began establishing outlets in Communist nations. Pizza Hut opened a branch in the Soviet Union in 1990, and by 1991 the McDonald's in Moscow's Red Square, serving 27,000 customers per day, had become more popular with tourists than Lenin's tomb.
OLESTRA
Olestra, was developed by Procter & Gamble as a replacement for fat in foods. Although the components of olestra—sucrose (table sugar) and fatty acids—are naturally occurring substances, the product itself is synthetic. Despite its approval in 1996 by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in salted snack foods, olestra drew heavy criticism from consumer-advocate groups because of reports by consumers of gastrointestinal malaise following consumption of products that contained olestra. Further scrutiny by medical researchers revealed that olestra interferes with blood levels of many important fat-soluble substances including carotenoids, which have been associated with lowered risk of heart disease and some cancers.
Olestra was discovered in 1968 by two Procter & Gamble researchers who were studying fat digestion. Their investigations led to the identification of a fat-like substance that was not degraded and digested by the body. The substance was originally called sucrose polyester, because its components of sucrose and fatty acids were chemically bound by ester bonds. The chemical name of the substance was eventually changed to olestra, and the corporation began conducting studies to examine what, if any, changes occurred when the substance was used as a cooking oil. Although not the first fat replacer discovered, olestra was the first that did not break down when used at high temperatures, thus it could be used for frying.
During the 1970s, Procter & Gamble conducted numerous investigations to study the safety of, and uses for, olestra in foods. In 1987, they petitioned the FDA for approval to use olestra as a general fat substitute in snack products. At the same time, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), a consumer-advocate group, publicly criticized the product, charging that the tests conducted by Procter & Gamble were inadequate, and that the product produced, among other things, severe gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, including flatulence, fecal incontinence, diarrhea, and anal leakage. Furthermore, the studies had revealed that the product interfered with the absorption of important fat-soluble nutrients, such as vitamins A, D, E, and K, and many carotenoids. Procter & Gamble responded by modifying the structure of olestra, as well as supplementing it with vitamins. Although it was subsequently approved by the FDA in 1996, all products using olestra—which is marketed under the trade name Olean®—must contain a warning about the adverse effects of olestra. After its release in 1998 on the United States market as an ingredient in several popular snack foods it continued to cause GI illnesses in some people despite the modifications made by the manufacturers.
Chemically, a molecule of olestra consists of a molecule of sucrose esterified to up to eight fatty-acid residues. The large size of the molecule, as well as the large number of fatty-acids, prevents it from being metabolized by GI bacteria and enzymes. Because of its fatty nature, olestra has a strong affinity for many fat-soluble substances. Whereas natural fats are broken down and absorbed by the intestine, olestra is passed through, and along its route it absorbs many valuable nutrients such as cholesterols, vitamins, and phytochemicals such as carotenoids, lycopene, and lutein.

Chemistry
The most abundant of the fatty acids combined in fats and oils are called stearic, palmitic, and oleic. Compounds having only one acid are called stearin, palmitin, and olein. Beef tallow is rich in stearin and palmitin, which are solids at room temperature; olive oil is mostly olein, a liquid. Most vegetable fats and oils contain all three of these acids. Small quantities of various substances, including other fatty acids, give fats and oils their distinctive odors and flavors.
Fats and oils are unsaturated or saturated, depending on the way in which carbon atoms are bonded together in their molecular structure. An unsaturated oil can be made saturated by applying heat and pressure to the oil in an atmosphere of hydrogen. This process, called hydrogenation, is used to change vegetable oils to solid fats for making margarine and cooking fats.

ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM

ELECTRONS are one of the subatomic particle seen in an atom. It is rotating the nucleus through a path called Orbit. They are negatively charged particle. If an atom loss or gain electrons, they become an ION. Electronwas discovered by J.J.THOMSON

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON:-

Electrons are discovered through an expirement called DISCHARGE TUBE EXPIREMENT.Discharge tube is a long glass tube of 50cm length. Two metal electrodes are sealed at the two end of the tube. The inner surface is coated with the Zinc sulphide (ZnS).There is a side tube connected with the vacuum pump.The pressure is reduced to 1/10000 atm. And an eletric charge of 10000volt is applied accross the tube. ZnS infront of the tube glows .because of some rays coming from negatively charged electrode(cathode).this is named as cathode rays.