ANGAS SCOTT
Charlotte Angas Scott was born in England. Her father, Caleb Scott, was president of Lancashire College, a Congregational minister and known as a social reformer; his father had been a reformer as well. Caleb Scott urged his daughter, Charlotte Angas Scott, to seek a university education, unusual for women in that time. She did so: she joined ten other young women at Hitchin College, soon renamed Girton College, part of Cambridge University.
As a pioneer in women's higher education, Charlotte Angas Scott and her classmates faced severe restrictions and on their participation and activities. Not officially permitted to take the traditional oral exam at the end of Cambridge's program, Charlotte Scott took it unofficially -- and placed eighth in the ranking overall, including all male students. At the awards ceremony, the women's names were not included in the rankings read. But male students shouted "Scott of Girton!" over the name of the male student who was announced in the eighth place.
Charlotte Angas Scott went on, then, to graduate studies at the University of London while serving as a lecturer at Girton. In 1885, she moved to the United States to join the first faculty of the newly-founded Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, the first women's college offering graduate degrees.
At Bryn Mawr, Charlotte Angas Scott promoted strict entrance policies and her efforts eventually led to the founding of the College Entrance Examination Board. Scott was the first chief examiner of the Board.
In 1909, Charlotte Scott was given the first endowed chair at Bryn Mawr, in recognition of her achievements.
Charlotte Angas Scott was a member of the council that transformed the New York Mathematical Society into the American Mathematical Society in 1895, and she served as the society's vice president in 1905. She was coeditor of the American Journal of Mathematics in 1899, and continued editing for that journal until her retirement. When arthritis forced a hiatus from publishing, Charlotte Scott took up gardening and bred a new chrysanthemum.
Charlotte Angas Scott never married, though she often visited with her relatives in England (where she was known as "Aunt Charlie"), and she also frequently visited her friend Frank Morley in Baltimore.
Charlotte Scott retired in 1925, though she remained at Bryn Mawr for a few more years until her last doctoral student had graduated. She died in England in 1931.
Works
1894: An Introductory Account of Certain Modern Ideas and Methods in Plane Analytical Geometry. First edition, 1894. Second edition, 1924. Third edition published in 1961 as Projective Methods in Plane Geometry.
1899: "A Proof of Noether's Fundamental Theorem"
1907: Cartesian Plane Geometry, Part I: Analytical Conics
Monday, July 6, 2009
ELENA CORONA PISCOPIA
(June 5, 1646 - July 26, 1684) mathematician, philosopher(Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia)first woman to earn a doctoral degree
The Cornaro family of Venice traced its heritage back to the Roman family of Cornelii. Ancestors included cardinals and popes. The castle Piscopia was given to the family by the husband of a (related) queen of Cyprus.
Elena Cornaro Piscopia was born in 1646 into this family. Her father was a public official who educated his children personally. A parish priest recognized Elena as a child prodigy when she was seven, and then she began to study with tutors in Latin, Greek, music, theology, and mathematics. She eventually learned Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and also French, English, and Spanish. She studied philosophy, and astronomy. Musically talented, by the time she was 17 years old she could sing, compose, and play such instruments as the violin, harp, and harpsichord.
Her achievements attracted the attention of many, including clerics, royals, and scientists. Many came to Venice to meet and speak with her.
Elena herself wanted to enter the Benedictine Order. She secretly practiced the disciplines of the Order and turned down marriage proposals, spending time serving the sick and the poor. But her father refused permission for her to enter the Order, and had her apply instead to the University of Padua.
Although some other women had studied science and math at the university level in Italy in her time, Elena Piscopia was the first to apply in theology. She studied there from 1672-1678, and in 1678; she received her master's and doctorate of philosophy degrees. The ceremony awarding her these degrees had to be held in the cathedral to accommodate the crowd that came to see her receive them.
Elena Piscopia became a lecturer in mathematics at the University, where she served until her early death in 1684.
She was honored after her death as a woman of learning. The University of Padua has a marble statue of her. Vassar College in New York has a stained glass window depicting her achievement.
Her achievement did not immediately open doors for many others, though. No other woman earned a doctorate at the University of Padua until the late twentieth century.
(June 5, 1646 - July 26, 1684) mathematician, philosopher(Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia)first woman to earn a doctoral degree
The Cornaro family of Venice traced its heritage back to the Roman family of Cornelii. Ancestors included cardinals and popes. The castle Piscopia was given to the family by the husband of a (related) queen of Cyprus.
Elena Cornaro Piscopia was born in 1646 into this family. Her father was a public official who educated his children personally. A parish priest recognized Elena as a child prodigy when she was seven, and then she began to study with tutors in Latin, Greek, music, theology, and mathematics. She eventually learned Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and also French, English, and Spanish. She studied philosophy, and astronomy. Musically talented, by the time she was 17 years old she could sing, compose, and play such instruments as the violin, harp, and harpsichord.
Her achievements attracted the attention of many, including clerics, royals, and scientists. Many came to Venice to meet and speak with her.
Elena herself wanted to enter the Benedictine Order. She secretly practiced the disciplines of the Order and turned down marriage proposals, spending time serving the sick and the poor. But her father refused permission for her to enter the Order, and had her apply instead to the University of Padua.
Although some other women had studied science and math at the university level in Italy in her time, Elena Piscopia was the first to apply in theology. She studied there from 1672-1678, and in 1678; she received her master's and doctorate of philosophy degrees. The ceremony awarding her these degrees had to be held in the cathedral to accommodate the crowd that came to see her receive them.
Elena Piscopia became a lecturer in mathematics at the University, where she served until her early death in 1684.
She was honored after her death as a woman of learning. The University of Padua has a marble statue of her. Vassar College in New York has a stained glass window depicting her achievement.
Her achievement did not immediately open doors for many others, though. No other woman earned a doctorate at the University of Padua until the late twentieth century.
Thursday, July 2, 2009
MAGNA CARTA
A basic document that states the liberties guaranteed to the English people, the Magna Carta proclaims rights that have become a part of English law and are now the foundation of the constitution of every English-speaking nation. The Magna Carta, which means “great charter” in Latin, was drawn up by English barons and churchmen, who forced the tyrannical King John to set his seal to it on June 15, 1215
King John's cruelty and greed united the powerful feudal nobles, the churchmen, and the townspeople against him. While the king was waging a disastrous war in France, the leading barons of England met secretly and swore to compel him to respect the rights of his subjects. When John returned, they presented him with a series of demands. John tried to gather support in order to avoid giving in to the demands, but almost all his followers deserted him. At last he met with the nobles and bishops along the south bank of the Thames in a meadow called Runnymede and affixed his seal to the Magna Carta.
In many of their demands the barons and bishops who forced the Magna Carta on King John quite naturally acted in their own best interests. Careful provision was made for limiting royal taxes and assessments, for reforming laws and judicial procedures, and for suppressing the misuse and extension of forest law. In addition, the Magna Carta provided certain guarantees for the people as a whole. The document has a total of 63 sections. Although much of it deals with feudal rights and duties, it also includes provisions that protect the rights of the church, merchants, and townspeople. One of the sections protecting merchants reads, translated from the original Latin: “All merchants shall be able to go out of and come into England safely and securely and stay and travel throughout England for buying and selling free from all evil tolls, except in time of war and if they are of the land at war with us.”
A basic document that states the liberties guaranteed to the English people, the Magna Carta proclaims rights that have become a part of English law and are now the foundation of the constitution of every English-speaking nation. The Magna Carta, which means “great charter” in Latin, was drawn up by English barons and churchmen, who forced the tyrannical King John to set his seal to it on June 15, 1215
King John's cruelty and greed united the powerful feudal nobles, the churchmen, and the townspeople against him. While the king was waging a disastrous war in France, the leading barons of England met secretly and swore to compel him to respect the rights of his subjects. When John returned, they presented him with a series of demands. John tried to gather support in order to avoid giving in to the demands, but almost all his followers deserted him. At last he met with the nobles and bishops along the south bank of the Thames in a meadow called Runnymede and affixed his seal to the Magna Carta.
In many of their demands the barons and bishops who forced the Magna Carta on King John quite naturally acted in their own best interests. Careful provision was made for limiting royal taxes and assessments, for reforming laws and judicial procedures, and for suppressing the misuse and extension of forest law. In addition, the Magna Carta provided certain guarantees for the people as a whole. The document has a total of 63 sections. Although much of it deals with feudal rights and duties, it also includes provisions that protect the rights of the church, merchants, and townspeople. One of the sections protecting merchants reads, translated from the original Latin: “All merchants shall be able to go out of and come into England safely and securely and stay and travel throughout England for buying and selling free from all evil tolls, except in time of war and if they are of the land at war with us.”
AIDS
AIDS
AIDS was first conclusively identified in the United States in 1981, when 189 cases were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Within a decade the disease had spread to virtually all populated areas of the world. At the end of 2001, 40 million people worldwide were living with the AIDS virus. Roughly 70 percent of these lived in sub-Saharan Africa and 17 percent in South and Southeast Asia. Worldwide, almost 14,000 people are infected with HIV each day, with 95 percent of these new infections occurring in developing countries. HIV and AIDS are not limited by global economics, however—approximately 940,000 people in the United States and 560,000 people in Western Europe were living with HIV by the end of 2001; almost 5 percent of these infections were acquired that year. The region with the fastest rising rate of new HIV infections was Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where roughly 1 million people were positive for HIV by the end of 2001, a quarter of these newly infected that year.
The first AIDS patients in the Americas and Europe were almost exclusively male homosexuals. Later patients included those who used unsterilized intravenous needles to inject illicit drugs; hemophiliacs (persons with a blood-clotting disorder) and others who had received blood transfusions; females whose male sexual partners had AIDS; and the children of such couples. After 1989, heterosexual sex became the fastest growing means of transmission of the virus, with 80 percent of new adult cases worldwide originating from heterosexual sex. Approximately 44 percent of the people living with HIV/AIDS in 2001 were women.
Public awareness of the disease gradually increased as high-profile individuals died from the disease or revealed that they were infected with the AIDS virus. The fact that these public figures had diverse backgrounds and lifestyles helped negate the stereotypes that were associated with AIDS and demonstrated that anyone could be at risk for infection.
HIV: The AIDS Virus
The initial name given to the virus that causes AIDS was the human T-lymphotrophic virus type III (HTLV-III). In the late 1980s, scientists realized that there were several forms of the virus and renamed the original virus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Scientific evidence suggests that the virus originated in nonhuman primates, probably chimpanzees, in Africa.
The virus enters the bloodstream and destroys certain white blood cells called CD4+ cells, a type of T lymphocyte that plays a key role in the functioning of the immune system. The virus can also infect other types of cells in the body, including the immune-system cells known as macrophages. Unlike T lymphocytes, however, macrophages are not killed by the virus. Research has suggested that macrophages may carry HIV to the brain, leading to the syndrome of neurological disorders known as AIDS dementia complex (ADC) that is seen in some long-term patients.
AIDS was first conclusively identified in the United States in 1981, when 189 cases were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Within a decade the disease had spread to virtually all populated areas of the world. At the end of 2001, 40 million people worldwide were living with the AIDS virus. Roughly 70 percent of these lived in sub-Saharan Africa and 17 percent in South and Southeast Asia. Worldwide, almost 14,000 people are infected with HIV each day, with 95 percent of these new infections occurring in developing countries. HIV and AIDS are not limited by global economics, however—approximately 940,000 people in the United States and 560,000 people in Western Europe were living with HIV by the end of 2001; almost 5 percent of these infections were acquired that year. The region with the fastest rising rate of new HIV infections was Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where roughly 1 million people were positive for HIV by the end of 2001, a quarter of these newly infected that year.
The first AIDS patients in the Americas and Europe were almost exclusively male homosexuals. Later patients included those who used unsterilized intravenous needles to inject illicit drugs; hemophiliacs (persons with a blood-clotting disorder) and others who had received blood transfusions; females whose male sexual partners had AIDS; and the children of such couples. After 1989, heterosexual sex became the fastest growing means of transmission of the virus, with 80 percent of new adult cases worldwide originating from heterosexual sex. Approximately 44 percent of the people living with HIV/AIDS in 2001 were women.
Public awareness of the disease gradually increased as high-profile individuals died from the disease or revealed that they were infected with the AIDS virus. The fact that these public figures had diverse backgrounds and lifestyles helped negate the stereotypes that were associated with AIDS and demonstrated that anyone could be at risk for infection.
HIV: The AIDS Virus
The initial name given to the virus that causes AIDS was the human T-lymphotrophic virus type III (HTLV-III). In the late 1980s, scientists realized that there were several forms of the virus and renamed the original virus human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Scientific evidence suggests that the virus originated in nonhuman primates, probably chimpanzees, in Africa.
The virus enters the bloodstream and destroys certain white blood cells called CD4+ cells, a type of T lymphocyte that plays a key role in the functioning of the immune system. The virus can also infect other types of cells in the body, including the immune-system cells known as macrophages. Unlike T lymphocytes, however, macrophages are not killed by the virus. Research has suggested that macrophages may carry HIV to the brain, leading to the syndrome of neurological disorders known as AIDS dementia complex (ADC) that is seen in some long-term patients.
UNITED NATION
UNITED NATION
The United Nations (UN) is an international association of independent states that was founded by the victorious nations of World War II to keep the peace their efforts had won. Its supreme goal was to end war, but by the end of the 20th century the organization had expanded its mandate to cover a varied agenda that included such issues as human rights, world poverty, public health, and environmental concerns. Membership was eventually extended to almost every country on Earth, growing from the initial 51 member nations in 1945 to 191 by 2002.
After WORLD WAR II it was expected that the great powers would work together to keep the peace. Instead, disagreements between the Soviet Union and the West beginning in the late 1940s created a state of international tension called the Cold War. The Soviet Union's goal was to spread the communist system of government throughout the world The Western nations, led by the United States, joined together to resist communist expansion. Both sides built up their weapons, which included nuclear arms. During this era the United Nations played a key role as peacemaker between East and West. After the Cold War ended in the early 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United Nations continued to promote peace and cooperation throughout the many troubled areas of the world, adapting to circumstances that were not dreamed of by its founders.
Origin of the United Nations
In 1942 representatives of 26 countries, calling themselves the United Nations, signed a pledge in Washington, D.C., to defeat the Axis Powers—the alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan—and to uphold the principles of the Atlantic Charter. In 1944 representatives of China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States drew up plans for a world organization when they met at Dumbarton Oaks, a private mansion in Washington, D.C.
In February 1945, at a conference in the Crimean city of Yalta on the Black Sea, representatives of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States discussed procedures for the organization and called for a conference to draw up a charter. On April 25, 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco; Calif. Delegates of 50 nations discussed and modified the original Dumbarton Oaks proposals. On June 26 the United Nations Charter was completed, signed, and sent to the member nations for ratification. In the United States, the Senate voted 89 to 2 on July 28, 1945, to ratify the charter. By Oct. 24, 1945, the required number of nations had ratified the charter and the United Nations officially came into existence. October 24 has been celebrated as United Nations Day since 1948. Some countries set aside seven days—United Nations Week—for educational and social programs.
The United Nations Charter
The preamble of the United Nations Charter sets forth the aims of the organization. The charter itself states the basic principles and purposes, defines the membership, and establishes the six principal departments, which are also called organs.
The original members of the United Nations numbered 51. The charter provides, however, that “all other peace-loving states” can become members on the recommendation of the Security Council if approved by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly. The Assembly, on recommendation of the Security Council, can expel a member that has persistently violated the principles of the charter.
Amendments to the charter require a vote of two thirds of all the members of the General Assembly. Following Assembly approval, the amendment must be ratified by two thirds of the member states, including all five permanent members of the Security Council.
In addition to sharing the risks of maintaining peace and security, the member states of the UN share in the financial burden of maintaining the organization. Each member nation contributes to the main budget and to the budget of each agency to which it belongs. The scale of contributions, based partly on ability to pay, is set by the General Assembly. Some states pay less than half of 1 percent of the budget. The largest contributors in the early 21st century were the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
The Six Basic Organs
The duties with which the United Nations is charged are so vast that it was determined from the beginning to divide the organization into functional arms, or organs, that would address specific areas of peacekeeping and human rights.
The General Assembly
The largest of the six basic organs, the General Assembly is the great deliberative body of the United Nations. It is linked with all the other organs and it elects their membership. It may discuss any subject within the scope of the charter, except those disputes that are being dealt with by the Security Council. After voting, it may forward its recommendations to other organs or to member governments.
All member states are represented in the Assembly. Each state may have up to five representatives but only one vote. Decisions on important questions (listed in the charter) require a two-thirds majority of members present and voting. Other questions are decided by a simple majority of those voting.
The Assembly meets in regular annual sessions but may in some instances call a special session. A president is elected to oversee each session.
The Security Council
Maintaining world peace and security is the responsibility of the Security Council. Every member of the United Nations is pledged to accept and carry out the Council's decisions. The Council is set up to function continuously; thus a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at UN headquarters. The Council is headed by a president, chosen from among the Council members. This presidency changes monthly.
The Security Council has 15 members. Five nations, known collectively as the Big Five—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—have permanent seats. (Russia's seat was held by the Soviet Union until that country's break-up in 1991.) Of the other 10 seats, five are elected each year by the General Assembly for two-year terms; five retire each year. Each member has one vote. On all routine (procedural) matters, approval requires nine “yes” votes. On all other matters, the nine “yes” votes must include the votes of all five permanent members. Thus, each of the Big Five has a veto power. Any one of them can block even the discussion of an action of which it disapproves. A party to a dispute, however, must abstain from voting.
Any state, even if it is not a member of the United Nations, may bring a dispute to which it is a party to the notice of the Security Council. The first response of the Council is always to search for a peaceful solution to the conflict. If the Council finds there is a real threat to peace, or an actual act of aggression, it may call upon the members of the United Nations to cut communications with the countries concerned or break off trade relations. If these methods prove inadequate, the charter states that the Council may take military action against the offending nation by air, sea, and land forces of the United Nations.
Every member of the United Nations is pledged by Article 43 to supply the Council with armed forces when needed. These forces are directed by a Military Staff Committee, consisting of the chiefs of staff (or their representatives) of the five permanent members.
The International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice, sometimes also called the World court, is the supreme court of the United Nations. Its permanent seat is in The Netherlands at The Hague. The court consists of 15 judges, no two of whom can be from one nation, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council. The judges serve for nine years and are eligible for reelection. Nine judges make a quorum and questions are decided by a majority vote.
Any states—even nonmembers—may bring disputes to the court for judgment. Both parties must first agree to allow the court to try the case. Should one of them fail to accept the judgment of the court, the other may appeal to the Security Council for enforcement. The court serves also as the legal adviser to the General Assembly, Security Council, and other United Nations organs.
The Economic and Social Council
The constructive tasks of peace—achieving higher standards of living, improving health and education, and promoting respect for human rights and freedoms throughout the world—are the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council. It works under the authority of the General Assembly and reports to the Assembly. The Council has 54 members, each of whom is elected to a three-year term. The Economic and Social Council is assisted by its own commissions and by independent specialized agencies.
The Secretariat
The UN Secretariat carries on the day-to-day business of the United Nations and assists all the other organs. At its head is the secretary-general, the chief administrative officer and spokesperson of the United Nations. The secretary-general embodies the ideals of the United Nations, drawing upon his or her personal integrity to prevent international disputes from escalating and helping to facilitate the work of the organization as needed. The secretary-general is appointed by the General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security Council. For many years the secretary-general's staff included thousands of workers from many countries. Efforts were begun in 1997 to trim the size of the department to control administrative costs. Because the secretary-general's responsibilities had expanded with the increased number of new UN programs, the post of deputy secretary-general was created in 1998.
The Trusteeship Council
The original responsibility of the Trusteeship Council was to protect the interests of people who lived in trust territories and to lead them toward self-government. Under the trusteeship system, colonial territories taken from countries defeated in war were administered by a trust country under international supervision until their future status was determined. The Council received reports from the administering authorities, examined petitions from trust territories, and sent out visiting missions. It consisted of states administering trust territories, permanent members of the Security Council that did not administer trust territories, and other UN members elected by the General Assembly.
The Trusteeship Council met once each year until Palau, the last trust territory, became independent in 1994. The Council then terminated its operations. No longer required to meet annually, the Trusteeship Council may meet on the decision of its president or on a request by a majority of its members, by the General Assembly, or by the Security Council. Since 1994 new roles for the Council have been proposed, including serving as a forum for minority and indigenous peoples.
The United Nations (UN) is an international association of independent states that was founded by the victorious nations of World War II to keep the peace their efforts had won. Its supreme goal was to end war, but by the end of the 20th century the organization had expanded its mandate to cover a varied agenda that included such issues as human rights, world poverty, public health, and environmental concerns. Membership was eventually extended to almost every country on Earth, growing from the initial 51 member nations in 1945 to 191 by 2002.
After WORLD WAR II it was expected that the great powers would work together to keep the peace. Instead, disagreements between the Soviet Union and the West beginning in the late 1940s created a state of international tension called the Cold War. The Soviet Union's goal was to spread the communist system of government throughout the world The Western nations, led by the United States, joined together to resist communist expansion. Both sides built up their weapons, which included nuclear arms. During this era the United Nations played a key role as peacemaker between East and West. After the Cold War ended in the early 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United Nations continued to promote peace and cooperation throughout the many troubled areas of the world, adapting to circumstances that were not dreamed of by its founders.
Origin of the United Nations
In 1942 representatives of 26 countries, calling themselves the United Nations, signed a pledge in Washington, D.C., to defeat the Axis Powers—the alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan—and to uphold the principles of the Atlantic Charter. In 1944 representatives of China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States drew up plans for a world organization when they met at Dumbarton Oaks, a private mansion in Washington, D.C.
In February 1945, at a conference in the Crimean city of Yalta on the Black Sea, representatives of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States discussed procedures for the organization and called for a conference to draw up a charter. On April 25, 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco; Calif. Delegates of 50 nations discussed and modified the original Dumbarton Oaks proposals. On June 26 the United Nations Charter was completed, signed, and sent to the member nations for ratification. In the United States, the Senate voted 89 to 2 on July 28, 1945, to ratify the charter. By Oct. 24, 1945, the required number of nations had ratified the charter and the United Nations officially came into existence. October 24 has been celebrated as United Nations Day since 1948. Some countries set aside seven days—United Nations Week—for educational and social programs.
The United Nations Charter
The preamble of the United Nations Charter sets forth the aims of the organization. The charter itself states the basic principles and purposes, defines the membership, and establishes the six principal departments, which are also called organs.
The original members of the United Nations numbered 51. The charter provides, however, that “all other peace-loving states” can become members on the recommendation of the Security Council if approved by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly. The Assembly, on recommendation of the Security Council, can expel a member that has persistently violated the principles of the charter.
Amendments to the charter require a vote of two thirds of all the members of the General Assembly. Following Assembly approval, the amendment must be ratified by two thirds of the member states, including all five permanent members of the Security Council.
In addition to sharing the risks of maintaining peace and security, the member states of the UN share in the financial burden of maintaining the organization. Each member nation contributes to the main budget and to the budget of each agency to which it belongs. The scale of contributions, based partly on ability to pay, is set by the General Assembly. Some states pay less than half of 1 percent of the budget. The largest contributors in the early 21st century were the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
The Six Basic Organs
The duties with which the United Nations is charged are so vast that it was determined from the beginning to divide the organization into functional arms, or organs, that would address specific areas of peacekeeping and human rights.
The General Assembly
The largest of the six basic organs, the General Assembly is the great deliberative body of the United Nations. It is linked with all the other organs and it elects their membership. It may discuss any subject within the scope of the charter, except those disputes that are being dealt with by the Security Council. After voting, it may forward its recommendations to other organs or to member governments.
All member states are represented in the Assembly. Each state may have up to five representatives but only one vote. Decisions on important questions (listed in the charter) require a two-thirds majority of members present and voting. Other questions are decided by a simple majority of those voting.
The Assembly meets in regular annual sessions but may in some instances call a special session. A president is elected to oversee each session.
The Security Council
Maintaining world peace and security is the responsibility of the Security Council. Every member of the United Nations is pledged to accept and carry out the Council's decisions. The Council is set up to function continuously; thus a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at UN headquarters. The Council is headed by a president, chosen from among the Council members. This presidency changes monthly.
The Security Council has 15 members. Five nations, known collectively as the Big Five—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—have permanent seats. (Russia's seat was held by the Soviet Union until that country's break-up in 1991.) Of the other 10 seats, five are elected each year by the General Assembly for two-year terms; five retire each year. Each member has one vote. On all routine (procedural) matters, approval requires nine “yes” votes. On all other matters, the nine “yes” votes must include the votes of all five permanent members. Thus, each of the Big Five has a veto power. Any one of them can block even the discussion of an action of which it disapproves. A party to a dispute, however, must abstain from voting.
Any state, even if it is not a member of the United Nations, may bring a dispute to which it is a party to the notice of the Security Council. The first response of the Council is always to search for a peaceful solution to the conflict. If the Council finds there is a real threat to peace, or an actual act of aggression, it may call upon the members of the United Nations to cut communications with the countries concerned or break off trade relations. If these methods prove inadequate, the charter states that the Council may take military action against the offending nation by air, sea, and land forces of the United Nations.
Every member of the United Nations is pledged by Article 43 to supply the Council with armed forces when needed. These forces are directed by a Military Staff Committee, consisting of the chiefs of staff (or their representatives) of the five permanent members.
The International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice, sometimes also called the World court, is the supreme court of the United Nations. Its permanent seat is in The Netherlands at The Hague. The court consists of 15 judges, no two of whom can be from one nation, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council. The judges serve for nine years and are eligible for reelection. Nine judges make a quorum and questions are decided by a majority vote.
Any states—even nonmembers—may bring disputes to the court for judgment. Both parties must first agree to allow the court to try the case. Should one of them fail to accept the judgment of the court, the other may appeal to the Security Council for enforcement. The court serves also as the legal adviser to the General Assembly, Security Council, and other United Nations organs.
The Economic and Social Council
The constructive tasks of peace—achieving higher standards of living, improving health and education, and promoting respect for human rights and freedoms throughout the world—are the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council. It works under the authority of the General Assembly and reports to the Assembly. The Council has 54 members, each of whom is elected to a three-year term. The Economic and Social Council is assisted by its own commissions and by independent specialized agencies.
The Secretariat
The UN Secretariat carries on the day-to-day business of the United Nations and assists all the other organs. At its head is the secretary-general, the chief administrative officer and spokesperson of the United Nations. The secretary-general embodies the ideals of the United Nations, drawing upon his or her personal integrity to prevent international disputes from escalating and helping to facilitate the work of the organization as needed. The secretary-general is appointed by the General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security Council. For many years the secretary-general's staff included thousands of workers from many countries. Efforts were begun in 1997 to trim the size of the department to control administrative costs. Because the secretary-general's responsibilities had expanded with the increased number of new UN programs, the post of deputy secretary-general was created in 1998.
The Trusteeship Council
The original responsibility of the Trusteeship Council was to protect the interests of people who lived in trust territories and to lead them toward self-government. Under the trusteeship system, colonial territories taken from countries defeated in war were administered by a trust country under international supervision until their future status was determined. The Council received reports from the administering authorities, examined petitions from trust territories, and sent out visiting missions. It consisted of states administering trust territories, permanent members of the Security Council that did not administer trust territories, and other UN members elected by the General Assembly.
The Trusteeship Council met once each year until Palau, the last trust territory, became independent in 1994. The Council then terminated its operations. No longer required to meet annually, the Trusteeship Council may meet on the decision of its president or on a request by a majority of its members, by the General Assembly, or by the Security Council. Since 1994 new roles for the Council have been proposed, including serving as a forum for minority and indigenous peoples.
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